From Bhutto to Khan: A Comparative and Historical Analysis of Inclusionary and Exclusionary Populism in Pakistan
Abstract
By comparing the eras of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (1971–1977) and Imran Khan (2018–2022), this study explores why two of Pakistan’s most influential populist leaders built such drastically different movements despite operating within the same military-influenced, patronage-driven, and religiously charged political landscape. Using frameworks that distinguish between inclusionary and exclusionary populism alongside a focus on economic, political, and symbolic tactics the research reveals a stark contrast between the two figures. Bhutto’s approach was largely inclusionary on an economic and political level, as he nationalized industries, pushed for land reform, and rallied everyday workers and peasants against a tiny group of wealthy elites known as the "22 families." However, his rule still carried authoritarian and exclusionary shadows, particularly in his harsh treatment of political opponents and marginalized groups like the Baloch and Bengalis. Khan’s version of populism went in the opposite direction, relying heavily on moral outrage to attack a corrupt "dynastic" political class rather than targeting an economic oligarchy. His policies were economically conservative, and for most of his time in power, he was propped up by the very military establishment he later claimed to be fighting. Placing both leaders within Pakistan’s predictable loop of populist uprisings, elite resistance, and military takeovers, the article concludes that simply categorizing populism as inclusionary or exclusionary isn't enough to fully understand the country. To truly make sense of Pakistan, these concepts must be paired with a close look at civil-military dynamics and religious nationalism. Ultimately, despite their grand promises to fix Pakistan's broken democracy, both leaders ended up reinforcing the exact same systemic barriers they had originally vowed to tear down.
Keywords: populism, Pakistan, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, Imran Khan, inclusionary populism, exclusionary populism, civil-military relations, democratic backsliding
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.21862709
